Dead Sea Scrolls Manuscripts

This week we’re exploring the Dead Sea Scrolls, seen by many as the most significant archaeological manuscript discovery of the 20th century. The dataset catalogs 809 manuscripts from the Israel Antiquities Authority’s official Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library, covering all 11 Qumran caves plus Masada, Wadi Murabba’at, and Nahal Hever. Each manuscript is classified by its biblical content, canonical status, language, material, paleographic period, and discovery site.

The Dead Sea Scrolls were discovered between 1947 and 1956 in caves near the Dead Sea. Dating from approximately 300 BCE to 68 CE, they include the oldest known copies of biblical texts, sectarian community documents, and a wide range of Jewish religious literature from the Second Temple period. The collection provides direct physical evidence of what Jewish communities read, copied, and valued as Scripture in the centuries before and during the time of Jesus.

Researchers have assembled a collection of 981 different manuscripts from 11 caves, which lie in the immediate vicinity of the Hellenistic Jewish settlement at the site of Khirbet Qumran in the eastern Judaean Desert. The identified texts fall into three general groups: about 40% are copies of texts from the canonical Hebrew scriptures; approximately 30% are texts from the Second Temple period that ultimately were not canonized in the Hebrew Bible, such as the Book of Enoch, the Book of Jubilees, the Book of Tobit, the Wisdom of Sirach, and Psalms 152–155.

Which biblical books were copied most frequently, and what does that tell us about their relative importance to the Qumran community?
Were deuterocanonical books (Tobit, Sirach, Letter of Jeremiah) treated differently from protocanonical books in terms of storage location, writing material, or scribal period?
How do the copy counts of non-canonical works like Jubilees and 1 Enoch compare to accepted biblical books?
What does the distribution of manuscripts across caves tell us about the library’s organization?
Is there a relationship between manuscript language (Hebrew vs Aramaic vs Greek) and content category?

This entry was compiled with the help of an AI agent, but reviewed by a human.

Thank you to Tony Galvan, Golden Dome Data Science for curating this week’s dataset.

The Data

# Using R
# Option 1: tidytuesdayR R package 
## install.packages("tidytuesdayR")

tuesdata <- tidytuesdayR::tt_load('2026-09-15')
## OR
tuesdata <- tidytuesdayR::tt_load(2026, week = 37)

dead_sea_scrolls <- tuesdata$dead_sea_scrolls

# Option 2: Read directly from GitHub

dead_sea_scrolls <- readr::read_csv('https://raw.githubusercontent.com/rfordatascience/tidytuesday/main/data/2026/2026-09-15/dead_sea_scrolls.csv')

# Using Python
# Option 1: pydytuesday python library
## pip install pydytuesday

import pydytuesday

# Download files from the week, which you can then read in locally
pydytuesday.get_date('2026-09-15')

# Option 2: Read directly from GitHub and assign to an object

dead_sea_scrolls = pandas.read_csv('https://raw.githubusercontent.com/rfordatascience/tidytuesday/main/data/2026/2026-09-15/dead_sea_scrolls.csv')

# Using Julia
# Option 1: TidierTuesday.jl library
## Pkg.add(url="https://github.com/TidierOrg/TidierTuesday.jl")

using TidierTuesday

# Download datasets for the week, and load them as a NamedTuple of DataFrames
data = tt_load("2026-09-15")

# Option 2: Read directly from GitHub and assign to an object with TidierFiles

dead_sea_scrolls = read_csv("https://raw.githubusercontent.com/rfordatascience/tidytuesday/main/data/2026/2026-09-15/dead_sea_scrolls.csv")

# Option 3: Read directly from Github and assign without Tidier dependencies
dead_sea_scrolls = CSV.read("https://raw.githubusercontent.com/rfordatascience/tidytuesday/main/data/2026/2026-09-15/dead_sea_scrolls.csv", DataFrame)

How to Participate

Explore the data, watching out for interesting relationships. We would like to emphasize that you should not draw conclusions about causation in the data. There are various moderating variables that affect all data, many of which might not have been captured in these datasets. As such, our suggestion is to use the data provided to practice your data tidying and plotting techniques, and to consider for yourself what nuances might underlie these relationships.
Create a visualization, a model, a Quarto report, a shiny app, or some other piece of data-science-related output, using R, Python, or another programming language.
Share your output and the code used to generate it on social media with the #TidyTuesday hashtag.
Submit your own dataset!

PydyTuesday: A Posit collaboration with TidyTuesday

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Data Dictionary

`dead_sea_scrolls.csv`

variable	class	description
manuscript_id	character	Unique catalog identifier assigned by the Israel Antiquities Authority (e.g., “4Q51”, “1Q1”, “Mas 1h”). The prefix indicates the site and cave number.
short_name	character	Short name assigned by the IAA (e.g., “1Q Gen”, “4Q Sam”). May be empty for unidentified fragments.
composition	character	Name of the composition or biblical book identified in the manuscript (e.g., “Genesis”, “Tobit”, “Community Rule”). “Unidentified” if the content has not been determined.
composition_type	character	IAA classification of the composition type (e.g., “Scripture”, “Pesher”, “Parabiblical Texts”, “Poetical/Liturgical Texts”, “Sectarian Texts”, “Unidentified Text”).
language	character	Primary language of the manuscript: Hebrew, Aramaic, Greek, or Nabataean.
script_type	character	Type of script used: “Square” (standard Jewish script), “Paleo-Hebrew” (ancient First Temple period script), “Greek”, or “Nabatean”.
material	character	Physical writing material: Parchment (leather), Papyrus, Copper, or Stone.
period	character	Paleographic dating period assigned by the IAA: “Early Hellenistic” (~300-200 BCE), “Hellenistic-Roman” (~200 BCE-68 CE), “Hasmonean” (~150-37 BCE), “Herodian” (~37 BCE-68 CE), or “Roman” (~68-135 CE).
site	character	Full discovery site description (e.g., “Qumran, Cave 4”, “Masada”).
site_parent	character	Broad site name: “Qumran”, “Masada”, “Wadi Murabba’at”, or “Nahal Hever”.
cave	integer	Cave number (1-11) for Qumran manuscripts. NA for non-Qumran sites.
num_images	integer	Number of high-resolution photographic plates of this manuscript in the IAA digital archive. Serves as a proxy for manuscript size and preservation state.
keywords	character	Thematic keywords assigned by IAA curators (e.g., “Garden of Eden, Abraham”). Sometimes includes Hebrew terms. NA for most manuscripts.
biblical_book	character	Identified biblical book or composition name, standardized for analysis (e.g., “Genesis”, “Tobit”, “Jubilees”, “Pesher (Commentary)”). NA if unidentified.
canon_status	character	Canonical status in modern Christian traditions: “Protocanonical” (accepted by both Catholics and Protestants), “Deuterocanonical” (Catholic canon only, rejected by Protestants), “Non-canonical” (not in any modern Christian canon), or “Unidentified”.
bible_section	character	Section of the Bible or literature type: “Torah”, “Nevi’im” (Prophets), “Ketuvim” (Writings), “Deuterocanonical”, “Pseudepigrapha”, “Sectarian”, “Liturgical”, “Wisdom”, “Documentary”, “Biblical Translation”, “Other”, or “Unidentified”.
testament	character	Whether the manuscript is from the Old Testament (“OT”), “Non-biblical”, or “Unknown” (if unidentified).
content_category	character	Broad content classification: “Biblical”, “Biblical (Deuterocanonical)”, “Parabiblical”, “Sectarian”, “Liturgical”, “Wisdom Literature”, “Documentary”, “Biblical Translation”, “Other Non-biblical”, or “Unidentified”.

Cleaning Script

# Dead Sea Scrolls Dataset
# Primary source: Leon Levy Dead Sea Scrolls Digital Library (Israel Antiquities Authority)
# Supplement: Wikipedia's List of the Dead Sea Scrolls (citing Fitzmyer 2008 / DJD series)
#
# This script queries the IAA's official catalog API for all known manuscript IDs
# across the 11 Qumran caves plus Masada, Wadi Murabba'at, and Nahal Hever.
# Manuscripts the API marks as "Unidentified" are supplemented with scholarly
# identifications from Wikipedia. Canon status enrichment classifies each
# manuscript as Protocanonical, Deuterocanonical, or Non-canonical based on
# the Catholic vs Protestant biblical canon.

library(httr)
library(jsonlite)
library(dplyr)
library(purrr)
library(stringr)
library(tidyr)
library(readr)
library(rvest)

# =============================================================================
# 1. SCRAPE LEON LEVY DIGITAL LIBRARY API
# =============================================================================

cave_ranges <- list(
  list(prefix = "1Q", start = 1, end = 72),
  list(prefix = "2Q", start = 1, end = 33),
  list(prefix = "3Q", start = 1, end = 15),
  list(prefix = "4Q", start = 1, end = 576),
  list(prefix = "5Q", start = 1, end = 25),
  list(prefix = "6Q", start = 1, end = 31),
  list(prefix = "7Q", start = 1, end = 19),
  list(prefix = "8Q", start = 1, end = 5),
  list(prefix = "9Q", start = 1, end = 1),
  list(prefix = "10Q", start = 1, end = 1),
  list(prefix = "11Q", start = 1, end = 31)
)

fetch_manuscript <- function(ms_id) {
  url <- sprintf("https://www.deadseascrolls.org.il/api/search?t=manuscript&q=%s",
                 URLencode(ms_id))
  resp <- tryCatch(
    GET(url, add_headers(`User-Agent` = "Mozilla/5.0 (R/tidytuesday)"), timeout(10)),
    error = function(e) NULL)
  if (is.null(resp) || status_code(resp) != 200) return(NULL)
  data <- content(resp, as = "text", encoding = "UTF-8") |> fromJSON(flatten = TRUE)
  if (data$length == 0) return(NULL)
  exact <- data$results |> filter(manuscript_number == ms_id)
  if (nrow(exact) > 0) return(exact[1, ])
  data$results[1, ]
}

all_manuscripts <- list()
for (cave in cave_ranges) {
  ids <- sprintf("%s%d", cave$prefix, cave$start:cave$end)
  cave_results <- compact(map(ids, ~ { Sys.sleep(0.08); fetch_manuscript(.x) }))
  if (length(cave_results) > 0) all_manuscripts[[cave$prefix]] <- bind_rows(cave_results)
}

# --- Non-Qumran sites: paginated text search ---
fetch_all_pages <- function(query) {
  first_url <- sprintf(
    "https://www.deadseascrolls.org.il/api/search?t=manuscript&q=%s&page=1",
    URLencode(query))
  resp <- tryCatch(GET(first_url,
    add_headers(`User-Agent` = "Mozilla/5.0 (R/tidytuesday)"),
    timeout(10)), error = function(e) NULL)
  if (is.null(resp) || status_code(resp) != 200) return(tibble())
  data <- content(resp, as = "text", encoding = "UTF-8") |> fromJSON(flatten = TRUE)
  if (data$length == 0) return(tibble())
  results <- data$results
  total_pages <- as.integer(data$totalpages)
  if (total_pages > 1) {
    for (p in 2:total_pages) {
      Sys.sleep(0.3)
      url <- sprintf(
        "https://www.deadseascrolls.org.il/api/search?t=manuscript&q=%s&page=%d",
        URLencode(query), p)
      r <- tryCatch(GET(url,
        add_headers(`User-Agent` = "Mozilla/5.0 (R/tidytuesday)"),
        timeout(10)), error = function(e) NULL)
      if (!is.null(r) && status_code(r) == 200) {
        pd <- content(r, as = "text", encoding = "UTF-8") |> fromJSON(flatten = TRUE)
        if (length(pd$results) > 0) results <- bind_rows(results, pd$results)
      }
    }
  }
  results
}

non_qumran_queries <- c("Mas", "Mur", "XHev", "5/6Hev", "8Hev")
for (q in non_qumran_queries) {
  Sys.sleep(0.5)
  site_results <- fetch_all_pages(q)
  if (nrow(site_results) > 0) all_manuscripts[[q]] <- site_results
}

leon_levy <- bind_rows(all_manuscripts) |>
  distinct(manuscript_number, .keep_all = TRUE) |>
  transmute(
    manuscript_id = manuscript_number,
    short_name = short_name,
    composition = composition_name,
    composition_type = composition_type,
    language = script_language,
    script_type = script_type,
    material = material,
    period = period,
    site = site,
    site_parent = if_else(!is.na(site_parent) & site_parent != "", site_parent,
                          str_extract(site, "^[^,]+")),
    cave = as.integer(str_extract(manuscript_number, "^(\\d+)(?=Q)")),
    num_images = num_images,
    keywords = if_else(is.na(keywords) | keywords == "", NA_character_, keywords)
  )

# =============================================================================
# 2. SUPPLEMENT WITH WIKIPEDIA IDENTIFICATIONS
# =============================================================================

page <- read_html("https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_the_Dead_Sea_Scrolls")
tables <- page |> html_elements("table.wikitable")
raw_tables <- map(tables, ~ tryCatch(html_table(.x, fill = TRUE), error = function(e) NULL)) |>
  compact()

cave_assignments <- c(1, 2, 3, 4, 4, 4, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, NA, NA, NA)
wiki <- map2_dfr(raw_tables, seq_along(raw_tables), function(df, idx) {
  names(df) <- c("identifier", "scroll_name", "alt_identifier",
                 "bible_association", "language", "date_script", "description", "reference")
  df |> mutate(across(everything(), as.character), cave = cave_assignments[idx])
}) |>
  filter(!str_detect(identifier,
    "^Qumran Cave|^Fragment or scroll|^Wadi|^Nahal|^Masada$"), identifier != "")

wiki_lookup <- wiki |>
  filter(!is.na(alt_identifier), !str_detect(alt_identifier, "[\u2013-]\\d")) |>
  select(alt_identifier, scroll_name_wiki = scroll_name, description_wiki = description) |>
  distinct(alt_identifier, .keep_all = TRUE)

# Merge: fill unidentified Leon Levy manuscripts with Wikipedia identifications
dead_sea_scrolls <- leon_levy |>
  left_join(wiki_lookup, by = c("manuscript_id" = "alt_identifier")) |>
  mutate(composition = if_else(
    composition == "Unidentified" & !is.na(scroll_name_wiki),
    scroll_name_wiki, composition))

# =============================================================================
# 3. CANON STATUS ENRICHMENT
# =============================================================================

biblical_books <- tribble(
  ~pattern, ~book, ~canon_status, ~bible_section, ~testament,
  "(?i)genesis apocryphon|\\bapGen", "Genesis Apocryphon", "Non-canonical", "Pseudepigrapha", "Non-biblical",
  "(?i)\\benoch|\\bEn[- ]|\\b1 ?En", "1 Enoch", "Non-canonical", "Pseudepigrapha", "Non-biblical",
  "(?i)\\bjubilees|\\bjub\\b", "Jubilees", "Non-canonical", "Pseudepigrapha", "Non-biblical",
  "(?i)\\bgiants\\b", "Book of Giants", "Non-canonical", "Pseudepigrapha", "Non-biblical",
  "(?i)\\btemple scroll", "Temple Scroll", "Non-canonical", "Sectarian", "Non-biblical",
  "(?i)community rule|serekh|rule of the community", "Community Rule", "Non-canonical", "Sectarian", "Non-biblical",
  "(?i)war scroll|milhamah|sefer ha-milhamah|rule of war", "War Scroll", "Non-canonical", "Sectarian", "Non-biblical",
  "(?i)hodayot|thanksgiving hymn", "Thanksgiving Hymns", "Non-canonical", "Sectarian", "Non-biblical",
  "(?i)damascus|\\bCD\\b", "Damascus Document", "Non-canonical", "Sectarian", "Non-biblical",
  "(?i)\\bnoah\\b", "Book of Noah", "Non-canonical", "Pseudepigrapha", "Non-biblical",
  "(?i)testament of levi|\\bTLevi|\\bALD|aramaic levi", "Aramaic Levi Document", "Non-canonical", "Pseudepigrapha", "Non-biblical",
  "(?i)testament of qahat|\\bTKohath|\\bTQahat", "Testament of Qahat", "Non-canonical", "Pseudepigrapha", "Non-biblical",
  "(?i)new jerusalem", "New Jerusalem", "Non-canonical", "Pseudepigrapha", "Non-biblical",
  "(?i)copper scroll", "Copper Scroll", "Non-canonical", "Documentary", "Non-biblical",
  "(?i)pesher|\\bpHab|\\bpNah|\\bpMic|\\bpZeph|\\bpPs|\\bpIsa|\\bpHos", "Pesher (Commentary)", "Non-canonical", "Sectarian", "Non-biblical",
  "(?i)phylacter|\\bphyl|\\btefillin", "Phylactery (Tefillin)", "Non-canonical", "Liturgical", "Non-biblical",
  "(?i)mezuz", "Mezuzah", "Non-canonical", "Liturgical", "Non-biblical",
  "(?i)\\bMMT\\b|miqsat", "MMT", "Non-canonical", "Sectarian", "Non-biblical",
  "(?i)\\binstruction\\b|sapiential", "Instruction (Musar)", "Non-canonical", "Wisdom", "Non-biblical",
  "(?i)mysteries|\\bMyst", "Book of Mysteries", "Non-canonical", "Sectarian", "Non-biblical",
  "(?i)songs of.*sabbath|angelic liturgy|\\bShir", "Songs of Sabbath Sacrifice", "Non-canonical", "Liturgical", "Non-biblical",
  "(?i)\\bflorilegium|\\beschat", "Florilegium", "Non-canonical", "Sectarian", "Non-biblical",
  "(?i)\\btestimonia\\b", "Testimonia", "Non-canonical", "Sectarian", "Non-biblical",
  "(?i)\\bvisions of amram|\\bamram", "Visions of Amram", "Non-canonical", "Pseudepigrapha", "Non-biblical",
  "(?i)\\brule of the blessing|benediction", "Rule of the Blessing", "Non-canonical", "Sectarian", "Non-biblical",
  "(?i)\\btargum\\b", "Targum", "Non-canonical", "Biblical Translation", "Non-biblical",
  "(?i)\\bcalendar|\\bcalendric|\\botot\\b", "Calendrical Document", "Non-canonical", "Sectarian", "Non-biblical",
  # Deuterocanonical
  "(?i)\\btobit\\b|\\btob\\b|papTobit", "Tobit", "Deuterocanonical", "Deuterocanonical", "OT",
  "(?i)\\bsirach\\b|\\bben sira", "Sirach", "Deuterocanonical", "Deuterocanonical", "OT",
  "(?i)letter of jeremiah|epist.*jeremiah|\\bEpJer", "Letter of Jeremiah", "Deuterocanonical", "Deuterocanonical", "OT",
  # Torah
  "(?i)\\bgenesis\\b|\\bGen[- e]|paleo.?Gen", "Genesis", "Protocanonical", "Torah", "OT",
  "(?i)\\bexodus\\b|\\bExod[- u]", "Exodus", "Protocanonical", "Torah", "OT",
  "(?i)\\bleviticus\\b|\\bLev[- i]|paleoLev", "Leviticus", "Protocanonical", "Torah", "OT",
  "(?i)\\bnumbers\\b|\\bNum[- b]", "Numbers", "Protocanonical", "Torah", "OT",
  "(?i)\\bdeuteronomy\\b|\\bDeut[- e]", "Deuteronomy", "Protocanonical", "Torah", "OT",
  # Nevi'im
  "(?i)\\bjoshua\\b", "Joshua", "Protocanonical", "Nevi'im", "OT",
  "(?i)\\bjudges\\b", "Judges", "Protocanonical", "Nevi'im", "OT",
  "(?i)\\bsamuel\\b", "Samuel", "Protocanonical", "Nevi'im", "OT",
  "(?i)\\bkings\\b", "Kings", "Protocanonical", "Nevi'im", "OT",
  "(?i)\\bisaiah\\b", "Isaiah", "Protocanonical", "Nevi'im", "OT",
  "(?i)\\bjeremiah\\b", "Jeremiah", "Protocanonical", "Nevi'im", "OT",
  "(?i)\\bezekiel\\b", "Ezekiel", "Protocanonical", "Nevi'im", "OT",
  "(?i)\\bhosea\\b", "Hosea", "Protocanonical", "Nevi'im", "OT",
  "(?i)\\bjoel\\b", "Joel", "Protocanonical", "Nevi'im", "OT",
  "(?i)\\bamos\\b", "Amos", "Protocanonical", "Nevi'im", "OT",
  "(?i)\\bjonah\\b", "Jonah", "Protocanonical", "Nevi'im", "OT",
  "(?i)\\bmicah\\b", "Micah", "Protocanonical", "Nevi'im", "OT",
  "(?i)\\bnahum\\b", "Nahum", "Protocanonical", "Nevi'im", "OT",
  "(?i)\\bhabakkuk\\b", "Habakkuk", "Protocanonical", "Nevi'im", "OT",
  "(?i)\\bzephaniah\\b", "Zephaniah", "Protocanonical", "Nevi'im", "OT",
  "(?i)\\bhaggai\\b", "Haggai", "Protocanonical", "Nevi'im", "OT",
  "(?i)\\bzechariah\\b", "Zechariah", "Protocanonical", "Nevi'im", "OT",
  "(?i)\\bmalachi\\b", "Malachi", "Protocanonical", "Nevi'im", "OT",
  "(?i)minor prophets|twelve prophets", "Minor Prophets (Twelve)", "Protocanonical", "Nevi'im", "OT",
  # Ketuvim
  "(?i)\\bpsalm", "Psalms", "Protocanonical", "Ketuvim", "OT",
  "(?i)\\bproverbs\\b", "Proverbs", "Protocanonical", "Ketuvim", "OT",
  "(?i)\\bjob\\b", "Job", "Protocanonical", "Ketuvim", "OT",
  "(?i)song of s|canticles", "Song of Songs", "Protocanonical", "Ketuvim", "OT",
  "(?i)\\becclesiastes\\b|\\bqoh", "Ecclesiastes", "Protocanonical", "Ketuvim", "OT",
  "(?i)\\blamentations\\b", "Lamentations", "Protocanonical", "Ketuvim", "OT",
  "(?i)\\besther\\b", "Esther", "Protocanonical", "Ketuvim", "OT",
  "(?i)\\bdaniel\\b", "Daniel", "Protocanonical", "Ketuvim", "OT",
  "(?i)\\bezra\\b", "Ezra", "Protocanonical", "Ketuvim", "OT",
  "(?i)\\bnehemiah\\b", "Nehemiah", "Protocanonical", "Ketuvim", "OT",
  "(?i)\\bchronicles\\b", "Chronicles", "Protocanonical", "Ketuvim", "OT",
  "(?i)\\bruth\\b", "Ruth", "Protocanonical", "Ketuvim", "OT",
  # Catch-all
  "(?i)\\bhymn|\\bhymnic", "Hymns", "Non-canonical", "Liturgical", "Non-biblical",
  "(?i)prayer|festival prayer", "Liturgical Prayer", "Non-canonical", "Liturgical", "Non-biblical"
)

identify_book <- function(composition, short_name, wiki_desc) {
  search_text <- paste(composition, short_name, wiki_desc, sep = " ")
  for (i in seq_len(nrow(biblical_books))) {
    if (str_detect(search_text, biblical_books$pattern[i])) {
      return(tibble(biblical_book = biblical_books$book[i],
                    canon_status = biblical_books$canon_status[i],
                    bible_section = biblical_books$bible_section[i],
                    testament = biblical_books$testament[i]))
    }
  }
  if (str_detect(search_text, "(?i)unident"))
    return(tibble(biblical_book = NA_character_, canon_status = "Unidentified",
                  bible_section = "Unidentified", testament = "Unknown"))
  tibble(biblical_book = NA_character_, canon_status = "Non-canonical",
         bible_section = "Other", testament = "Non-biblical")
}

book_info <- pmap_dfr(list(dead_sea_scrolls$composition,
                           replace_na(dead_sea_scrolls$short_name, ""),
                           replace_na(dead_sea_scrolls$description_wiki, "")),
                      identify_book)
dead_sea_scrolls <- dead_sea_scrolls |>
  mutate(
    biblical_book = book_info$biblical_book,
    canon_status = book_info$canon_status,
    bible_section = book_info$bible_section,
    testament = book_info$testament
  )

# Final cleanup
dead_sea_scrolls <- dead_sea_scrolls |>
  mutate(
    content_category = case_when(
      canon_status == "Protocanonical" ~ "Biblical",
      canon_status == "Deuterocanonical" ~ "Biblical (Deuterocanonical)",
      bible_section == "Pseudepigrapha" ~ "Parabiblical",
      bible_section == "Sectarian" ~ "Sectarian",
      bible_section == "Liturgical" ~ "Liturgical",
      bible_section == "Wisdom" ~ "Wisdom Literature",
      bible_section == "Documentary" ~ "Documentary",
      bible_section == "Biblical Translation" ~ "Biblical Translation",
      bible_section == "Unidentified" ~ "Unidentified",
      TRUE ~ "Other Non-biblical"
    ),
    language = case_when(
      str_detect(language, "(?i)hebrew") ~ "Hebrew",
      str_detect(language, "(?i)aramaic") ~ "Aramaic",
      str_detect(language, "(?i)greek") ~ "Greek",
      str_detect(language, "(?i)nabat") ~ "Nabataean",
      TRUE ~ language
    )
  ) |>
  select(-scroll_name_wiki, -description_wiki)